The emperor and the slave

James Martorano

Recently, a very close friend gave me an important book: The Discourses of Epictetus.

That amazing book opened my eyes to the incredible world of Stoicism. Today, Stoicism stands as one of the most enduring and influential philosophical traditions in Western thought. Originating in ancient Greece and reaching its zenith in Rome, Stoicism advocates for virtue, wisdom, self-control and resilience amid life's inevitable hardships. Its unique development is profoundly linked to two pivotal figures: the philosopher and former slave Epictetus and the statesman and emperor Marcus Aurelius. These contrasting lives—one a man of humble origins and the other a ruler—embody core Stoic virtues and exemplify how varied human experiences can converge into a unified philosophical outlook. Their contributions elucidate the practical application of Stoic ideals, shaping a tradition that emphasizes personal virtue, rational control and acceptance of fate.

But who is this man, Epictetus? Born around 50 CE in Hierapolis (modern-day Turkey), Epictetus was originally a slave owned by a Roman senator. His early life was marked by hardship, but his intellectual curiosity and innate virtue led him to study philosophy. After gaining his freedom, Epictetus dedicated himself to teaching Stoicism, emphasizing the importance of inner freedom, rationality and the distinction between what is within our control and what is outside it.

Unlike today’s distorted idea that Stoicism means not to feel anything, the true meaning of Stoicism, as you will see, is quite different. Let’s look at the principles of Epictetus and Aurelius separately.

First, Epictetus. Here are his major ideas:

• Dichotomy of Control: Epictetus famously delineated between what we can control—our judgments, actions, and attitudes—and what we cannot—external events, other people's opinions and natural phenomena. By focusing on internal control, one achieves tranquility.

• Virtue as the Highest Good: For Epictetus, living virtuously—the practice of wisdom, courage, justice, and self-discipline—is the path to eudaimonia (flourishing). External possessions or status are insignificant.

• Acceptance and Resilience: The acceptance of fate (amor fati) and the development of resilience are central. Hardships are viewed as opportunities to exercise virtue.

Next, Marcus Aurelius. The second focus of this essay is someone most of us have heard of: Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Born in 121 CE, Marcus Aurelius was a Roman emperor from 161 to 180 CE. Despite power and privilege, Marcus was deeply influenced by Stoic principles, which he incorporated into his personal writings, most famously, "Meditations." His life as emperor was fraught with challenges: wars, political unrest and personal loss. Yet he exemplified Stoicism by maintaining self-control, humility and a sense of duty.

Here are his major ideas:

• Universal Reason (Logos): Marcus believed in living in harmony with the rational order of the universe, emphasizing interconnectedness, acceptance and rationality.

• Impermanence and Nature's Cycles: Recognizing the transient nature of life, he advised embracing change and the impermanence of worldly goods.

• Duty and Service: Marcus viewed his role as a duty to serve the greater good, exemplifying Stoic virtue through leadership and moral integrity.

Epictetus's life and teachings underscore that virtue is accessible to all, regardless of social standing or external circumstances. His emphasis on personal discipline and inner freedom resonates with the Stoic ideal that happiness depends on our judgments and choices. He urged practitioners to master their desires and passions, cultivating equanimity against life's vicissitudes. He championed the independence of the mind, asserting that true freedom lies in mastering oneself and aligning one’s will with reason. His teachings often centered on simplifying life's desires to attain serenity, demonstrating that external possessions are indifferent.

Fascinatingly, unlike most powerful rulers, Marcus Aurelius's life reflected the ideal Stoic citizen—one who rules by virtue and practices self-discipline daily. His personal reflections encapsulate a philosophical approach to leadership, adversity and mortality. His "Meditations" emphasize humility, compassion and an acceptance of human mortality. Marcus practiced voluntary acceptance of fate (amor fati), understanding that the universe’s course is determined by reason. His role as emperor was seen as a service to humanity, rooted in Stoic virtues of justice, wisdom and fortitude.

Both figures transformed Stoicism from a set of abstract metaphysical ideas into a practical guide for daily life. Epictetus’s teachings made resilience and virtue attainable through self-discipline, emphasizing that internal moral strength is the true source of freedom. Marcus Aurelius translated these principles into the duties of a ruler, demonstrating that philosophical reflection must be integrated into leadership and action.

I find it intriguing that two men of such diverse backgrounds could join forces to form such a compelling way of life. Epictetus's background as a slave shows that virtue and wisdom are not limited by social class, reinforcing Stoic egalitarianism. Meanwhile, Marcus’s imperial position illustrates that virtue is relevant at all levels of society, including positions of power. Their lives collectively underscore that Stoic ideals are for everyone, regardless of status.

Marcus’s able leadership during times of crisis and Epictetus’s advocacy for mental resilience during hardship exemplify the core Stoic goal: maintaining tranquility regardless of external circumstances. Their lives exemplify that inner virtue enables one to navigate external chaos with equanimity. The legacy of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius extends beyond antiquity into modern philosophy, psychology, and self-help. Their teachings have inspired contemporary therapeutic approaches like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), which emphasizes changing destructive thought patterns and focusing on what can be controlled. Modern practitioners celebrate Epictetus's emphasis on acceptance and personal responsibility, and Marcus’s insights into self-reflection and duty. Their lives illustrate that Stoicism’s core virtues are accessible and relevant across times and cultures, making it a resilient philosophical tradition.

In conclusion, the lives and philosophies of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius embody the transformative power of Stoicism. From the humble slave who learned to master himself amid oppression to the emperor who ruled with moral integrity and acceptance, both exemplified the core Stoic virtues—wisdom, courage, justice and self-control. Their contributions cemented Stoicism's role as a practical philosophy grounded in personal virtue, resilience and rational acceptance. Their legacy continues to inspire countless individuals seeking refuge from life's upheavals, affirming that true freedom and happiness arise from within. In bridging the vastly different worlds they inhabited, they revealed that Stoic principles are universal and timeless, guiding all humanity toward a life of virtue and tranquility. I want to thank my good friend Laura for bringing this extraordinary philosophical tradition to my attention. I hope you, the reader, enjoyed this resulting essay.